Iimodeli ze-anatomical eziprintiweyo ezinemilinganiselo emithathu (ii-3DPAM) zibonakala zisisixhobo esifanelekileyo ngenxa yexabiso lazo lemfundo kunye nokwenzeka kwazo. Injongo yolu phononongo kukuchaza nokuhlalutya iindlela ezisetyenzisiweyo ukwenza i-3DPAM yokufundisa i-anatomy yomntu kunye nokuvavanya igalelo layo lokufundisa.
Kwenziwe uphando lwe-elektroniki kwi-PubMed kusetyenziswa la magama alandelayo: imfundo, isikolo, ukufunda, ukufundisa, uqeqesho, ukufundisa, imfundo, enemilinganiselo emithathu, i-3D, enemilinganiselo emithathu, ukuprinta, ukuprinta, ukuprinta, i-anatomy, i-anatomy, kunye ne-anatomy. . Iziphumo zaziquka iimpawu zokufunda, uyilo lwemodeli, uvavanyo lwemo, ukusebenza kwemfundo, amandla kunye nobuthathaka.
Phakathi kwamanqaku angama-68 akhethiweyo, inani elikhulu lezifundo ezigxile kummandla we-cranial (amanqaku angama-33); amanqaku angama-51 akhankanya ukuprintwa kwamathambo. Kumanqaku angama-47, i-3DPAM yaphuhliswa ngokusekelwe kwi-computed tomography. Kudweliswe iinkqubo ezintlanu zokuprinta. Iiplastiki kunye nezinto eziphuma kuzo zisetyenziswe kwizifundo ezingama-48. Uyilo ngalunye luxabisa ukusuka kwi-$1.25 ukuya kwi-$2,800. Izifundo ezingama-37 zithelekise i-3DPAM neemodeli zesalathiso. Amanqaku angama-33 ahlolisise imisebenzi yemfundo. Iingenelo eziphambili zikumgangatho wokubona nokuchukumisa, ukusebenza kakuhle kokufunda, ukuphindaphindwa, ukwenza ngokwezifiso kunye nobukrelekrele, ukonga ixesha, ukuhlanganiswa kwe-anatomy esebenzayo, amandla angcono okujikeleza kwengqondo, ukugcina ulwazi kunye nokwaneliseka kotitshala/umfundi. Iingxaki eziphambili zinxulumene noyilo: ukuhambelana, ukungabikho kweenkcukacha okanye ukucaca, imibala ekhanyayo kakhulu, amaxesha amade okuprinta kunye neendleko eziphezulu.
Olu phononongo olucwangcisiweyo lubonisa ukuba i-3DPAM ixabisa kancinci kwaye iyasebenza ekufundiseni i-anatomy. Iimodeli eziyinyani ngakumbi zifuna ukusetyenziswa kwetekhnoloji yokuprinta ye-3D ebiza kakhulu kunye namaxesha amade oyilo, nto leyo eya kunyusa kakhulu iindleko zizonke. Eyona nto ibalulekileyo kukukhetha indlela efanelekileyo yokufota. Ngokwembono yokufundisa, i-3DPAM sisixhobo esisebenzayo sokufundisa i-anatomy, esinefuthe elihle kwiziphumo zokufunda kunye nolwaneliseko. Isiphumo sokufundisa se-3DPAM singcono xa sivelisa iindawo ezintsonkothileyo ze-anatomy kwaye abafundi basisebenzisa kwasekuqaleni koqeqesho lwabo lwezonyango.
Ukuqhaqha izidumbu zezilwanyana bekusenziwa ukususela eGrisi yamandulo kwaye yenye yezona ndlela ziphambili zokufundisa i-anatomy. Ukuqhaqha izidumbu ezenziwa ngexesha loqeqesho olusebenzayo kusetyenziswa kwikharityhulam yethiyori yabafundi bezonyango baseyunivesithi kwaye okwangoku kuthathwa njengomgangatho ophambili wokufunda i-anatomy [1,2,3,4,5]. Nangona kunjalo, kukho imiqobo emininzi ekusebenziseni iisampuli zesidumbu zabantu, nto leyo ebangela ukuba kufunwe izixhobo ezintsha zoqeqesho [6, 7]. Ezinye zezi zixhobo zintsha ziquka i-augmented reality, izixhobo zedijithali, kunye nokuprinta kwe-3D. Ngokutsho kophononongo lwakutshanje loncwadi lukaSantos et al. [8] Ngokuphathelele ixabiso lezi teknoloji zintsha zokufundisa i-anatomy, ukuprinta kwe-3D kubonakala ngathi yenye yezona zixhobo zibalulekileyo, kokubini ngokwexabiso lemfundo kubafundi kunye nangokuphathelele ukwenzeka kokusetyenziswa [4,9,10].
Ukuprinta nge-3D akuyonto intsha. Iipatenti zokuqala ezinxulumene nale teknoloji ziqala ngo-1984: A Le Méhauté, O De Witte kunye no-JC André eFransi, kwaye emva kweeveki ezintathu uC Hull e-USA. Ukususela ngoko, le teknoloji iqhubekile nokukhula kwaye ukusetyenziswa kwayo kuye kwanda kwiindawo ezininzi. Umzekelo, i-NASA yashicilela into yokuqala ngaphaya koMhlaba ngo-2014 [11]. Icandelo lezonyango nalo likwamkele esi sixhobo sitsha, ngaloo ndlela lonyusa umnqweno wokuphuhlisa amayeza alungiselelwe umntu ngamnye [12].
Ababhali abaninzi babonise iingenelo zokusebenzisa iimodeli ze-anatomical eziprintiweyo ze-3D (3DPAM) kwimfundo yezonyango [10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Xa kufundiswa i-anatomy yomntu, kufuneka iimodeli ezingezizo eze-pathological kunye neze-anatomical eziqhelekileyo. Ezinye iiphononongo zihlolisise iimodeli zoqeqesho lwe-pathological okanye lwezonyango/lotyando [8, 20, 21]. Ukuphuhlisa imodeli exutyiweyo yokufundisa i-anatomy yomntu equka izixhobo ezintsha ezifana nokuprinta kwe-3D, senze uphononongo olucwangcisiweyo ukuchaza nokuhlalutya indlela izinto eziprintiweyo ze-3D ezidalwe ngayo ukufundisa i-anatomy yomntu kunye nendlela abafundi abavavanya ngayo ukusebenza kokufunda besebenzisa ezi zinto ze-3D.
Olu phononongo lweencwadi olucwangcisiweyo lwenziwe ngoJuni ka-2022 ngaphandle kwemiqathango yexesha kusetyenziswa izikhokelo zePRISMA (Izinto Ezikhethwayo Zokubika Uhlolo Olucwangcisiweyo kunye noHlahlelo lweMeta) [22].
Iikhrayitheriya zokubandakanywa zonke yayiziiphepha zophando ezisebenzisa i-3DPAM ekufundiseni/ekufundeni nge-anatomy. Uphononongo loncwadi, iileta, okanye amanqaku agxile kwiimodeli ze-pathological, iimodeli zezilwanyana, iimodeli zezinto zakudala, kunye neemodeli zoqeqesho lwezonyango/lotyando azizange zikhutshwe. Kuphela ngamanqaku apapashwe ngesiNgesi akhethiweyo. Amanqaku angenazo izishwankathelo ezifumanekayo kwi-intanethi azange akhutshwe. Amanqaku aquka iimodeli ezininzi, ubuncinane enye yazo yayiqhelekile ngokwe-anatomy okanye yayine-pathology encinci engachaphazeli ixabiso lokufundisa, afakiwe.
Kwenziwe uphando lweencwadi kwi-database ye-elektroniki i-PubMed (iThala leeNcwadi leSizwe lezonyango, i-NCBI) ukuze kufunyanwe izifundo ezifanelekileyo ezipapashwe ukuya kuthi ga kuJuni 2022. Sebenzisa la magama alandelayo okukhangela: imfundo, isikolo, ukufundisa, ukufundisa, ukufunda, ukufundisa, imfundo, enemilinganiselo emithathu, i-3D, i-3D, ukuprinta, ukuprinta, ukuprinta, i-anatomy, i-anatomy, i-anatomy kunye ne-anatomy. Kwenziwe umbuzo omnye: (((imfundo[Isihloko/Isishwankathelo] OKANYE isikolo[Isihloko/Isishwankathelo] OKANYE ukufunda[Isihloko/Isishwankathelo] OKANYE ukufundisa[Isihloko/Isishwankathelo] OKANYE uqeqesho[Isihloko/Isishwankathelo] OEach[Isihloko/Isishwankathelo] ] OKANYE Imfundo [Isihloko/Isishwankathelo]) KUNYE (Imilinganiselo Emithathu [Isihloko] OKANYE 3D [Isihloko] OKANYE 3D [Isihloko])) KUNYE (Print [Isihloko] OKANYE Phrinta [Isihloko] OKANYE Phrinta [Isihloko])) KUNYE (Anatomy) [Isihloko] ]/isishwankathelo] okanye anatomy [isihloko/isishwankathelo] okanye anatomy [isihloko/isishwankathelo] okanye anatomy [isihloko/isishwankathelo]). Amanqaku ongezelelweyo achongiwe ngokukhangela ngesandla kwi-database ye-PubMed kunye nokuphonononga iireferensi zamanye amanqaku esayensi. Akukho miqathango yomhla esetyenzisiweyo, kodwa kusetyenziswe isihluzi "soMntu".
Zonke izihloko kunye nezishwankathelo ezifunyenweyo zihlolwe ngokuchasene nemigangatho yokubandakanywa kunye nokukhutshwa ngababhali ababini (i-EBR kunye ne-AL), kwaye naluphi na uphando olungahlangabezani nazo zonke iikhrayitheriya zokufaneleka aluzange lukhutshwe. Iimpapasho ezipheleleyo zezifundo ezisele zifunyenwe kwaye zahlolwa ngababhali abathathu (i-EBR, i-EBE kunye ne-AL). Xa kuyimfuneko, ukungavisisani ekukhetheni amanqaku kusonjululwe ngumntu wesine (LT). Iimpapasho ezihlangabezana nazo zonke iikhrayitheriya zokubandakanywa zifakiwe kolu phononongo.
Ukukhupha idatha kwenziwe ngokuzimeleyo ngababhali ababini (i-EBR kunye ne-AL) phantsi kweliso lombhali wesithathu (i-LT).
- Idatha yoyilo lwemodeli: iindawo ze-anatomical, iindawo ezithile ze-anatomical, imodeli yokuqala yokuprinta kwe-3D, indlela yokufumana, isoftware yokwahlulahlula kunye nokubonisa imodeli, uhlobo lweprinta ye-3D, uhlobo lwezinto kunye nobungakanani, isikali sokuprinta, umbala, iindleko zokuprinta.
- Uvavanyo lwemo yeemodeli: iimodeli ezisetyenziselwa ukuthelekisa, uvavanyo lwezonyango lweengcali/ootitshala, inani labavavanyi, uhlobo lovavanyo.
- Ukufundisa imodeli ye-3D: uvavanyo lolwazi lwabafundi, indlela yokuvavanya, inani labafundi, inani lamaqela okuthelekisa, ukungalingani kwabafundi, imfundo/uhlobo lomfundi.
Izifundo ezingama-418 zichongiwe kwi-MEDLINE, kwaye amanqaku ali-139 akhutshelwa ngaphandle kwisihluzo "somntu". Emva kokuphonononga izihloko kunye nezishwankathelo, izifundo ezili-103 zikhethwe ukuze zifundwe ngokupheleleyo. Amanqaku angama-34 akhutshelwa ngaphandle kuba ayeyimodeli yezifo (amanqaku ali-9), iimodeli zoqeqesho lwezonyango/utyando (amanqaku ama-4), iimodeli zezilwanyana (amanqaku ama-4), iimodeli ze-3D radiological (inqaku eli-1) okanye ayengengawo amanqaku esayensi okuqala (izahluko ezili-16). ). Amanqaku angama-68 ewonke aqukiwe kuphononongo. Umfanekiso 1 ubonisa inkqubo yokukhetha njengetshathi yokuhamba.
Itshathi yokuhamba eshwankathela ukuchongwa, ukuhluzwa, kunye nokufakwa kwamanqaku kolu phononongo olucwangcisiweyo
Zonke izifundo zipapashwe phakathi kowama-2014 nowama-2022, kunye nonyaka wokupapashwa oqhelekileyo ka-2019. Phakathi kwamanqaku angama-68 aqukiweyo, izifundo ezingama-33 (49%) bezichaza kwaye zivavanywa, ezili-17 (25%) bezivavanywa kuphela, kwaye ezili-18 (26%) bezivavanywa kuphela. Zichaza kuphela. Kwizifundo ezingama-50 (73%) zovavanyo, ezingama-21 (31%) zisebenzise ukungacwangciswanga. Zingama-34 kuphela izifundo (50%) eziquke uhlalutyo lwezibalo. Itheyibhile 1 ishwankathela iimpawu zesifundo ngasinye.
Amanqaku angama-33 (48%) ahlolisise ummandla wentloko, amanqaku ali-19 (28%) ahlolisise ummandla wesifuba, amanqaku ali-17 (25%) ahlolisise ummandla wesisu, kwaye amanqaku ali-15 (22%) ahlolisise amalungu omzimba. Amanqaku angamashumi amahlanu ananye (75%) akhankanye amathambo aprintiweyo e-3D njengeemodeli ze-anatomical okanye iimodeli ze-anatomical ezineziqwenga ezininzi.
Ngokuphathelele iimodeli okanye iifayile zemvelaphi ezisetyenzisiweyo ukuphuhlisa i-3DPAM, amanqaku angama-23 (34%) akhankanye ukusetyenziswa kwedatha yesigulane, amanqaku angama-20 (29%) akhankanye ukusetyenziswa kwedatha yesidumbu, kwaye amanqaku ali-17 (25%) akhankanye ukusetyenziswa kwedatha yedatha. asetyenziswa, kwaye izifundo ezisi-7 (10%) azizange zityhile umthombo wamaxwebhu asetyenzisiweyo.
Izifundo ezingama-47 (69%) ziphuhlise i-3DPAM ngokusekelwe kwi-computed tomography, kwaye izifundo ezi-3 (4%) zibike ukusetyenziswa kwe-microCT. Izinto ezi-7 (10%) zibonise izinto ze-3D zisebenzisa ii-optical scanners, izinto ezi-4 (6%) zisebenzisa i-MRI, kunye nenqaku eli-1 (1%) zisebenzisa iikhamera kunye nee-microscopes. Izinto ezili-14 (21%) azikhankanyi umthombo weefayile zomthombo woyilo lwemodeli ye-3D. Iifayile ze-3D zenziwe ngesisombululo esiphakathi sendawo esingaphantsi kwe-0.5 mm. Isisombululo esifanelekileyo yi-30 μm [80] kwaye isisombululo esiphezulu yi-1.5 mm [32].
Kusetyenziswe izicelo zesoftware ezingamashumi amathandathu ezahlukeneyo (ukwahlulahlula, ukumodela, uyilo okanye ukuprinta). IiMimics (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium) zazisetyenziswa rhoqo (izifundo ezili-14, 21%), zilandelwa yiMeshMixer (Autodesk, San Rafael, CA) (izifundo ezili-13, 19%), iGeomagic (3D System, MO, NC, Leesville). (izifundo ezili-10, 15%), i-3D Slicer (Slicer Developer Training, Boston, MA) (izifundo ezili-9, 13%), iBlender (Blender Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands) (izifundo ezi-8, 12%) kunye neCURA (Geldemarsen, Netherlands) (izifundo ezi-7, 10%).
Iimodeli zomshicileli ezingamashumi amathandathu anesixhenxe kunye neenkqubo zokuprinta ezintlanu zikhankanyiwe. Itekhnoloji ye-FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) isetyenzisiwe kwiimveliso ezingama-26 (38%), ukuqhumisa izinto kwiimveliso ezili-13 (19%) kwaye ekugqibeleni ukuqhumisa nge-binder (iimveliso ezili-11, 16%). Itekhnoloji ezingasetyenziswanga kakhulu yi-sterolithography (SLA) (amanqaku ama-5, 7%) kunye ne-selective laser sintering (SLS) (amanqaku ama-4, 6%). Iprinta esetyenziswa kakhulu (amanqaku asi-7, 10%) yiConnex 500 (Stratasys, Rehovot, Israel) [27, 30, 32, 36, 45, 62, 65].
Xa kucaciswa izinto ezisetyenzisiweyo ukwenza i-3DPAM (ama-article angama-51, 75%), izifundo ezingama-48 (71%) zisebenzise iiplastiki kunye nezinto eziphuma kuzo. Izinto eziphambili ezisetyenzisiweyo yayiyi-PLA (polylactic acid) (n = 20, 29%), i-resin (n = 9, 13%) kunye ne-ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) (iintlobo ezi-7, 10%). Ama-article angama-23 (34%) ahlolisise i-3DPAM eyenziwe ngezinto ezininzi, ama-article angama-36 (53%) abonise i-3DPAM eyenziwe ngezinto enye kuphela, kwaye ama-article ali-9 (13%) awazange achaze nto.
Amanqaku angamashumi amabini anesithoba (43%) axele ukuba kukho umlinganiselo wokuprinta oqala kwi-0.25:1 ukuya kwi-2:1, ngomyinge we-1:1. Amanqaku angamashumi amabini anesihlanu (37%) asebenzise umlinganiselo we-1:1. Ii-3DPAM ezingama-28 (41%) zazinemibala emininzi, kwaye ezi-9 (13%) zadaywa emva kokuprinta [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75].
Amanqaku angamashumi amathathu anesine (50%) akhankanye iindleko. Amanqaku ali-9 (13%) akhankanye iindleko zeeprinta ze-3D kunye nezinto eziluhlaza. Amaxabiso eeprinta aqala kwi-$302 ukuya kwi-$65,000. Xa kuchaziwe, amaxabiso eemodeli aqala kwi-$1.25 ukuya kwi-$2,800; ezi zinto zigqithisileyo zihambelana neesampuli zamathambo [47] kunye neemodeli ze-retroperitoneal ezithembekileyo kakhulu [48]. Itheyibhile 2 ishwankathela idatha yemodeli yophando ngalunye olubandakanyiweyo.
Izifundo ezingamashumi amathathu anesixhenxe (54%) zithelekise i-3DAPM nemodeli yesalathiso. Phakathi kwezi zifundo, eyona modeli iqhelekileyo yayiyimodeli yesalathiso se-anatomical, esetyenziswe kwinqaku ezili-14 (38%), amalungiselelo eplastini kwinqaku ezi-6 (16%), amalungiselelo eplastini kwinqaku ezi-6 (16%). Ukusetyenziswa kwe-virtual reality, i-computed tomography imaging i-3DPAM enye kwinqaku ezi-5 (14%), enye i-3DPAM kwinqaku ezi-3 (8%), imidlalo enzulu kwinqaku eli-1 (3%), ii-radiographs kwinqaku eli-1 (3%), iimodeli zoshishino kwinqaku eli-1 (3%) kunye ne-augmented reality kwinqaku eli-1 (3%). Izifundo ezingamashumi amathathu anesine (50%) zihlole i-3DPAM. Izifundo ezilishumi elinesihlanu (48%) zichaze amava abavavanyi ngokweenkcukacha (Itheyibhile 3). I-3DPAM yenziwe ngoogqirha okanye oogqirha abaya kwizifundo ezisi-7 (47%), iingcali ze-anatomical kwizifundo ezi-6 (40%), abafundi kwizifundo ezi-3 (20%), ootitshala (uqeqesho olungachazwanga) kwizifundo ezi-3 (20%) zovavanyo kunye nomnye umvavanyi kwinqaku (7%). Inani eliqhelekileyo labavavanyi li-14 (ubuncinci 2, ubuninzi 30). Izifundo ezingamashumi amathathu anesithathu (49%) zivavanye imo ye-3DPAM ngokomgangatho, kwaye izifundo ezili-10 (15%) zivavanye imo ye-3DPAM ngokomlinganiselo. Kwizifundo ezingama-33 ezisebenzise uvavanyo lomgangatho, ezili-16 zisebenzise uvavanyo oluchazayo kuphela (48%), ezili-9 zisebenzise iimvavanyo/uvavanyo/uphando (27%), kwaye ezi-8 zisebenzise izikali zeLikert (24%). Itheyibhile 3 ishwankathela uvavanyo lwemo yeemodeli kwisifundo ngasinye esibandakanyiweyo.
Amanqaku angamashumi amathathu anesithathu (48%) ahlolisise aze athelekise ukusebenza kakuhle kokufundisa abafundi i-3DPAM. Kwezi zifundo, amanqaku angama-23 (70%) avavanya ulwaneliseko lwabafundi, ali-17 (51%) asebenzise izikali zeLikert, kwaye ama-6 (18%) asebenzise ezinye iindlela. Amanqaku angamashumi amabini anesibini (67%) avavanya ukufunda kwabafundi ngovavanyo lolwazi, apho ali-10 (30%) asebenzise uvavanyo lwangaphambi kovavanyo kunye/okanye uvavanyo lwasemva kovavanyo. Izifundo ezilishumi elinanye (33%) zisebenzise imibuzo kunye neemvavanyo ezikhethiweyo ukuvavanya ulwazi lwabafundi, kwaye izifundo ezihlanu (15%) zisebenzise ukulebhelisha imifanekiso/ukuchonga umzimba. Umyinge wabafundi abangama-76 bathathe inxaxheba kwisifundo ngasinye (ubuncinci obu-8, ubuninzi obungama-319). Izifundo ezingamashumi amabini anesine (72%) zazineqela lolawulo, apho ama-20 (60%) asebenzise ukungacwangciswanga. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, uphando olunye (3%) lunike abafundi abali-10 abahlukeneyo iimodeli zokwakheka komzimba ngokungacwangciswanga. Ngokomyinge, amaqela angama-2.6 athelekiswa (ubuncinci obu-2, ubuninzi obu-10). Izifundo ezingamashumi amabini anesithathu (70%) bezibandakanya abafundi bezonyango, apho ezili-14 (42%) bezingabafundi bezonyango bonyaka wokuqala. Izifundo ezintandathu (18%) bezibandakanya abahlali, abafundi bamazinyo aba-4 (12%), kunye nabafundi besayensi aba-3 (9%). Izifundo ezintandathu (18%) zisebenzise kwaye zavavanya ukufunda okuzimeleyo kusetyenziswa i-3DPAM. Itheyibhile 4 ishwankathela iziphumo zovavanyo lokusebenza kakuhle kokufundisa lwe-3DPAM kwisifundo ngasinye esibandakanyiweyo.
Iingenelo eziphambili ezichazwe ngababhali ngokusebenzisa i-3DPAM njengesixhobo sokufundisa umzimba womntu oqhelekileyo ziimpawu ezibonakalayo nezichukumisayo, kubandakanya ubunyani [55, 67], ukuchaneka [44, 50, 72, 85], kunye nokuguquguquka kokuvumelana [34, 45]. , 48, 64], umbala kunye nokungafihlisi [28, 45], ukuqina [24, 56, 73], isiphumo semfundo [16, 32, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], iindleko [27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 64, 80, 81, 83], ukuphinda-phinda [80], ithuba lokuphucula okanye ukwenza ngokwezifiso [28, 30, 36, 45, 48, 51, 53, 59, 61, 67, 80], ukukwazi ukulawula abafundi [30, 49], ukonga ixesha lokufundisa [61, 80], ukulula kokugcina [61], ukukwazi ukudibanisa i-anatomy esebenzayo okanye ukudala izakhiwo ezithile [51, 53], 67], uyilo olukhawulezayo lwamathambo iimodeli [81], ukukwazi ukwenza iimodeli kunye nokuzithatha zize zibuyele nazo ekhaya [49, 60, 71], ukuphucula izakhono zokujikeleza ingqondo [23] kunye nokugcina ulwazi [32], kunye nootitshala [25, 63] kunye nolwaneliseko lwabafundi [25, 45, 46, 52, 52, 57, 63, 66, 69, 84].
Iingxaki eziphambili zinxulumene noyilo: ukuqina [80], ukuhambelana [28, 62], ukungabikho kweenkcukacha okanye ukucaca [28, 30, 34, 45, 48, 62, 64, 81], imibala ekhanyayo kakhulu [45]. kunye nobuthathaka bomgangatho [71]. Ezinye iingxaki ziquka ukulahleka kolwazi [30, 76], ixesha elide elifunekayo lokwahlulahlula umfanekiso [36, 52, 57, 58, 74], ixesha lokuprinta [57, 63, 66, 67], ukungabikho kokuguquguquka komzimba [25], kunye neendleko . Ziphezulu [48].
Olu phononongo olucwangcisiweyo lushwankathela amanqaku angama-68 apapashwe kwiminyaka eli-9 kwaye lugxininisa umdla woluntu lwezenzululwazi kwi-3DPAM njengesixhobo sokufundisa i-anatomy eqhelekileyo yomntu. Indawo nganye ye-anatomy yafundwa kwaye yaprintwa nge-3D. Kula manqaku, amanqaku angama-37 athelekisa i-3DPAM nezinye iimodeli, kwaye amanqaku angama-33 avavanya ukubaluleka kwe-3DPAM kubafundi.
Ngenxa yokwahluka koyilo lwezifundo zokuprinta ze-anatomical 3D, asibonanga kufanelekile ukwenza uhlalutyo lwe-meta. Uhlalutyo lwe-meta olwapapashwa ngo-2020 lugxile kakhulu kuvavanyo lolwazi lwe-anatomical emva koqeqesho ngaphandle kokuhlalutya iinkalo zobugcisa kunye netekhnoloji yoyilo kunye nemveliso ye-3DPAM [10].
Ummandla wentloko ngowona ufundwa kakhulu, mhlawumbi ngenxa yokuba ubunzima bomzimba wawo benza kube nzima kubafundi ukubonisa lo mmandla we-anatomical kwindawo enemilinganiselo emithathu xa kuthelekiswa namalungu okanye umzimba. I-CT yeyona ndlela isetyenziswa kakhulu yokufota. Le ndlela isetyenziswa kakhulu, ingakumbi kwiindawo zonyango, kodwa inesisombululo esilinganiselweyo sendawo kunye nomahluko ophantsi wezicubu ezithambileyo. Le mida yenza ii-CT scans zingafaneleki ukwahlulwahlulwa kunye nokwenziwa kwemodeli yenkqubo yemithambo-luvo. Kwelinye icala, i-computed tomography ifanelekile ngakumbi ukwahlulwahlulwa/ukwenziwa kwemodeli yezicubu zamathambo; Umahluko wezicubu zamathambo/ezithambileyo unceda ukugqiba la manyathelo ngaphambi kokuba kuprintwe iimodeli ze-anatomical ze-3D. Kwelinye icala, i-microCT ithathwa njengetekhnoloji yokubhekisa ngokwesisombululo sendawo kwimifanekiso yamathambo [70]. Ii-optical scanners okanye i-MRI nazo zinokusetyenziswa ukufumana imifanekiso. Umahluko ophezulu uthintela ukugudiswa kwemiphezulu yamathambo kwaye ugcina ubuncinci bezakhiwo ze-anatomical [59]. Ukukhetha imodeli kukwachaphazela isisombululo sendawo: umzekelo, iimodeli zeplastiki zinesisombululo esiphantsi [45]. Abayili bemizobo kufuneka benze iimodeli ze-3D ezenziwe ngokwezifiso, ezonyusa iindleko ($25 ukuya kwi-$150 ngeyure) [43]. Ukufumana iifayile ze-.STL ezikumgangatho ophezulu akwanelanga ukwenza iimodeli ze-anatomical ezikumgangatho ophezulu. Kubalulekile ukumisela iiparameter zokuprinta, ezifana nokujoliswa kwemodeli ye-anatomical kwipleyiti yokuprinta [29]. Abanye ababhali bacebisa ukuba ubuchwepheshe obuphambili bokuprinta obufana ne-SLS kufuneka busetyenziswe naphi na apho kunokwenzeka khona ukuphucula ukuchaneka kwe-3DPAM [38]. Ukuveliswa kwe-3DPAM kufuna uncedo lobuchwephesha; iingcali ezifunwa kakhulu ziinjineli [72], iingcali ze-radiology, [75], abayili bemizobo [43] kunye neengcali ze-anatomist [25, 28, 51, 57, 76, 77].
Isoftware yokwahlulahlula kunye nokubonisa imodeli zizinto ezibalulekileyo ekufumaneni iimodeli ezichanekileyo ze-anatomical, kodwa ixabiso lezi phakheji zesoftware kunye nobunzima bazo kuthintela ukusetyenziswa kwazo. Izifundo ezininzi ziye zathelekisa ukusetyenziswa kweephakheji zesoftware ezahlukeneyo kunye nobuchwepheshe bokuprinta, ziqaqambisa iingenelo kunye nokungalungi kobuchwepheshe ngabunye [68]. Ukongeza kwisoftware yokubonisa imodeli, isoftware yokuprinta ehambelana neprinta ekhethiweyo nayo iyafuneka; abanye ababhali bakhetha ukusebenzisa ukuprinta kwe-3D kwi-intanethi [75]. Ukuba kuprintwe izinto ze-3D ezaneleyo, utyalo-mali lunokukhokelela kwimbuyekezo yemali [72].
Iplastiki yeyona nto isetyenziswa kakhulu. Uluhlu olubanzi lweempawu zayo kunye nemibala luyenza ibe yinto ekhethwayo kwi-3DPAM. Abanye ababhali bayincome kakhulu amandla ayo aphezulu xa kuthelekiswa neemodeli zesintu zesidumbu okanye zeplastini [24, 56, 73]. Ezinye iiplastiki zineepropati zokugoba okanye zokwelula. Umzekelo, iFilaflex eneteknoloji ye-FDM inokwelula ukuya kuthi ga kwi-700%. Abanye ababhali bayijonga njengezinto ezikhethwayo zokuphindaphinda izihlunu, imisipha kunye ne-ligament [63]. Kwelinye icala, izifundo ezimbini ziphakamise imibuzo malunga nokujonga ifayibha ngexesha lokuprinta. Enyanisweni, ukujonga ifayibha yemisipha, ukufakwa, ukugcinwa, kunye nomsebenzi zibalulekile ekuboniseni izihlunu [33].
Okumangalisayo kukuba, zimbalwa izifundo ezikhankanya isikali sokuprinta. Ekubeni abantu abaninzi becinga ukuba umlinganiselo we-1:1 ungowona uqhelekileyo, umbhali usenokuba ukhethe ukungathethi ngawo. Nangona ukwandisa kuya kuba luncedo ekufundeni okujoliswe kumaqela amakhulu, ukuba kunokwenzeka ukwandisa isikali akukahlolwa, ingakumbi ngokukhula kobukhulu beklasi kunye nobukhulu bomzimba bemodeli njengento ebalulekileyo. Kakade ke, izikali zobukhulu obupheleleyo zenza kube lula ukufumana nokunxibelelana neziqalelo ezahlukeneyo zomzimba kwisigulana, nto leyo enokuchaza isizathu sokuba zisetyenziswa rhoqo.
Kwiiprinta ezininzi ezikhoyo kwimarike, ezo zisebenzisa ubuchwepheshe bePolyJet (izinto okanye i-binder inkjet) ukubonelela ngemibala kunye ne-multi-layer (kwaye ngoko ke i-multi-texture) yokuprinta ephezulu ixabisa phakathi kwe-US$20,000 kunye ne-US$250,000 (https: //www.aniwaa.com/). Eli xabiso liphezulu linokunciphisa ukukhuthazwa kwe-3DPAM kwizikolo zonyango. Ukongeza kwixabiso leprinta, ixabiso lezinto ezifunekayo zokuprinta i-inkjet liphezulu kuneeprinta ze-SLA okanye ze-FDM [68]. Amaxabiso eeprinta ze-SLA okanye ze-FDM nawo afikeleleka lula, ukusuka kwi-€576 ukuya kwi-€4,999 kumanqaku adweliswe kolu phononongo. Ngokutsho kweTripodi kunye noogxa bakhe, inxalenye nganye yamathambo inokuprintwa nge-US$1.25 [47]. Izifundo ezilishumi elinanye zigqibe kwelokuba ukuprinta kwe-3D kubiza kancinci kune-plasticization okanye iimodeli zorhwebo [24, 27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 63, 80, 81, 83]. Ngaphezu koko, ezi modeli zorhwebo zenzelwe ukubonelela ngolwazi lwesigulana ngaphandle kweenkcukacha ezaneleyo zokufundisa nge-anatomy [80]. Ezi modeli zorhwebo zithathwa njengezingaphantsi kune-3DPAM [44]. Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuba, ukongeza kubuchwepheshe bokuprinta obusetyenzisiweyo, ixabiso lokugqibela lilingana nesikali kwaye ngoko ke ubungakanani bokugqibela be-3DPAM [48]. Ngenxa yezi zizathu, isikali sobukhulu obupheleleyo siyathandwa [37].
Uphononongo olunye kuphela oluthelekise i-3DPAM neemodeli ze-anatomical ezithengiswayo [72]. Iisampuli ze-cadaveric zezona ziqhathaniso zisetyenziswa kakhulu kwi-3DPAM. Nangona zinqongophele, iimodeli ze-cadaveric zihlala zisisixhobo esibalulekileyo sokufundisa i-anatomy. Kufuneka kwahlulwe phakathi kwe-autopsy, i-dissection kunye ne-dry bone. Ngokusekelwe kuvavanyo loqeqesho, izifundo ezimbini zibonise ukuba i-3DPAM yayisebenza kakuhle kakhulu kune-plastinated dissection [16, 27]. Uphononongo olunye luthelekise iyure enye yoqeqesho kusetyenziswa i-3DPAM (i-lower end) kunye neyure enye yokwahlulahlula indawo efanayo ye-anatomical [78]. Akukho mahluko abalulekileyo phakathi kweendlela ezimbini zokufundisa. Kusenokwenzeka ukuba kukho uphando oluncinci ngesi sihloko kuba uthelekiso olunjalo kunzima ukulwenza. I-dissection lulungiselelo oluthatha ixesha kubafundi. Ngamanye amaxesha kufuneka iiyure ezininzi zokulungiselela, kuxhomekeke kwinto elungiselelwayo. Uthelekiso lwesithathu lunokwenziwa ngamathambo omileyo. Uphononongo lukaTsai noSmith lufumanise ukuba amanqaku ovavanyo ayengcono kakhulu kwiqela elisebenzisa i-3DPAM [51, 63]. UChen kunye noogxa bakhe baqaphele ukuba abafundi abasebenzisa iimodeli ze-3D basebenze ngcono ekuchongeni izakhiwo (iikhaka), kodwa akukho mahluko kumanqaku e-MCQ [69]. Okokugqibela, uTanner kunye noogxa bakhe babonise iziphumo ezingcono emva kovavanyo kweli qela besebenzisa i-3DPAM ye-pterygopalatine fossa [46]. Ezinye izixhobo zokufundisa ezintsha zichongiwe kolu phononongo lweencwadi. Ezona zixhaphakileyo phakathi kwazo yi-augmented reality, i-virtual reality kunye nemidlalo enzulu [43]. Ngokutsho kukaMahrous kunye noogxa bakhe, ukukhetha iimodeli ze-anatomical kuxhomekeke kwinani leeyure abafundi abadlala ngazo imidlalo yevidiyo [31]. Kwelinye icala, ingxaki enkulu yezixhobo ezintsha zokufundisa i-anatomy yi-haptic feedback, ngakumbi kwizixhobo ze-virtual kuphela [48].
Uninzi lwezifundo ezivavanya i-3DPAM entsha zisebenzise uvavanyo lwangaphambi kolwazi. Olu vavanyo lwangaphambi kovavanyo lunceda ekuphepheni ukucalucalulwa kuvavanyo. Abanye ababhali, ngaphambi kokuba benze izifundo zovavanyo, babakhuphe bonke abafundi abafumene amanqaku angaphezu komndilili kuvavanyo lokuqala [40]. Phakathi kwezinto uGaras kunye noogxa bakhe abakhankanyileyo yayilumbala wemodeli kunye nokukhethwa kwabavolontiya kwiklasi yabafundi [61]. Ukupenda kwenza kube lula ukuchongwa kwezakhiwo zomzimba. UChen kunye noogxa bakhe bamisela iimeko zovavanyo ezingqongqo ngaphandle komahluko wokuqala phakathi kwamaqela kwaye uphando lwalufihlwe kwinqanaba eliphezulu kangangoko kunokwenzeka [69]. ULim kunye noogxa bakhe bacebisa ukuba uvavanyo lwasemva kovavanyo lugqitywe ngumntu wesithathu ukuze kuthintelwe ukucalucalulwa kuvavanyo [16]. Ezinye izifundo zisebenzise izikali zeLikert ukuvavanya ukuba kunokwenzeka na i-3DPAM. Esi sixhobo sifanelekile ukuvavanya ulwaneliseko, kodwa kusekho izinto ezibalulekileyo ekufuneka ziqwalaselwe [86].
Ukubaluleka kwemfundo ye-3DPAM kuhlolwe ikakhulu phakathi kwabafundi bezonyango, kuquka nabafundi bezonyango bonyaka wokuqala, kwizifundo ezili-14 kwezingama-33. Kuphononongo lwabo lovavanyo, uWilk kunye noogxa bakhe baxele ukuba abafundi bezonyango babekholelwa ukuba ukuprintwa kwe-3D kufanele kufakwe ekufundeni kwabo nge-anatomy [87]. Ama-87% abafundi abaphononongwe kuphononongo lweCercenelli babekholelwa ukuba unyaka wesibini wophando yayilixesha elifanelekileyo lokusebenzisa i-3DPAM [84]. Iziphumo zoTanner kunye noogxa bakhe zibonise nokuba abafundi baqhube ngcono ukuba abazange bafunde ngalo mmandla [46]. Ezi datha zibonisa ukuba unyaka wokuqala wesikolo sezonyango lelona xesha lifanelekileyo lokufaka i-3DPAM ekufundiseni nge-anatomy. Uhlalutyo lwe-meta lukaYe luxhase le ngcinga [18]. Kumanqaku angama-27 aqukwe kolu phononongo, bekukho umahluko omkhulu kumanqaku ovavanyo phakathi kwe-3DPAM kunye neemodeli zemveli zabafundi bezonyango, kodwa kungekhona kubemi.
I-3DPAM njengesixhobo sokufunda iphucula impumelelo yezemfundo [16, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], ukugcinwa kolwazi ixesha elide [32], kunye nokwaneliseka kwabafundi [25, 45, 46, 52, 57, 63, 66]. , 69, 84]. Iiphaneli zeengcali nazo zifumanise ukuba ezi modeli ziluncedo [37, 42, 49, 81, 82], kwaye izifundo ezimbini zifumene ukwaneliseka kootitshala nge-3DPAM [25, 63]. Kuzo zonke imithombo, uBackhouse kunye noogxa bakhe bajonga ukuprintwa kwe-3D njengolona khetho lungcono kuneemodeli ze-anatomical zemveli [49]. Kuhlalutyo lwabo lokuqala lwe-meta, uYe kunye noogxa bakhe baqinisekisile ukuba abafundi abafumene imiyalelo ye-3DPAM babenamanqaku angcono emva kovavanyo kunabafundi abafumene imiyalelo ye-2D okanye yesidumbu [10]. Nangona kunjalo, bahlula i-3DPAM kungengobunzima, kodwa ngentliziyo, inkqubo yemithambo-luvo, kunye nomgodi wesisu. Kwizifundo ezisixhenxe, i-3DPAM ayizange iphumelele kwezinye iimodeli ezisekelwe kwiimvavanyo zolwazi ezinikwe abafundi [32, 66, 69, 77, 78, 84]. Kuhlalutyo lwabo lwe-meta, uSalazar kunye noogxa bakhe bagqibe kwelokuba ukusetyenziswa kwe-3DPAM kuphucula ngokukodwa ukuqonda i-anatomy eyinkimbinkimbi [17]. Le ngcamango iyahambelana neleta kaHitas eya kumhleli [88]. Ezinye iindawo ze-anatomy ezithathwa njengezinganzimanga kakhulu azifuni ukusetyenziswa kwe-3DPAM, ngelixa iindawo ze-anatomy eziyinkimbinkimbi ngakumbi (ezifana nentamo okanye inkqubo yemithambo-luvo) ziya kuba lukhetho olunengqiqo lwe-3DPAM. Le ngcamango inokuchaza isizathu sokuba ezinye ii-3DPAM zingathathwa njengezingcono kuneemodeli zemveli, ingakumbi xa abafundi bengenalo ulwazi kwicandelo apho ukusebenza kwemodeli kufunyanwa kuphezulu. Ke ngoko, ukubonisa imodeli elula kubafundi abasele benolwazi oluthile ngesifundo (abafundi bezonyango okanye abahlali) akuncedi ekuphuculeni ukusebenza kwabafundi.
Kuzo zonke iingenelo zemfundo ezidwelisiweyo, izifundo ezili-11 zigxininise kwiimpawu ezibonakalayo okanye ezichukumisekayo zeemodeli [27,34,44,45,48,50,55,63,67,72,85], kwaye izifundo ezi-3 ziphucule amandla kunye nokuqina (33, 50 -52, 63, 79, 85, 86). Ezinye iingenelo kukuba abafundi banokulawula izakhiwo, ootitshala banokonga ixesha, kulula ukuzigcina kunezidumbu, iprojekthi ingagqitywa kwiiyure ezingama-24, ingasetyenziswa njengesixhobo sokufundisa ekhaya, kwaye ingasetyenziselwa ukufundisa ulwazi oluninzi. [30, 49, 60, 61, 80, 81]. Ukuprintwa okuphindaphindiweyo kwe-3D kokufundisa i-anatomy ephezulu kwenza iimodeli zokuprinta ze-3D zibe nexabiso eliphantsi [26]. Ukusetyenziswa kwe-3DPAM kunokuphucula amandla okujikeleza kwengqondo [23] kunye nokuphucula ukutolikwa kwemifanekiso enqamlezileyo [23, 32]. Izifundo ezibini zifumanise ukuba abafundi abachaphazeleka yi-3DPAM banamathuba amaninzi otyando [40, 74]. Izihlanganisi zesinyithi zinokufakwa ukuze kwenziwe intshukumo efunekayo ukuze kufundwe i-anatomy esebenzayo [51, 53], okanye iimodeli zinokuprintwa kusetyenziswa uyilo lwe-trigger [67].
Ukuprinta nge-3D kuvumela ukudalwa kweemodeli ze-anatomical ezihlengahlengiswayo ngokuphucula iinkalo ezithile ngexesha lesigaba sokumodela, [48, 80] ukudala isiseko esifanelekileyo, [59] ukudibanisa iimodeli ezininzi, [36] kusetyenziswa ukucaca, (49) umbala, [45] okanye ukwenza izakhiwo ezithile zangaphakathi zibonakale [30]. UTripodi kunye noogxa bakhe basebenzise udongwe lokubumba ukuze bancedise iimodeli zabo zamathambo eziprintiweyo nge-3D, begxininisa ixabiso leemodeli ezidalwe kunye njengezixhobo zokufundisa [47]. Kwizifundo ezili-9, umbala wasetyenziswa emva kokuprinta [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75], kodwa abafundi bawusebenzise kube kanye kuphela [49]. Ngelishwa, olu phononongo aluzange luvavanye umgangatho woqeqesho lwemodeli okanye ulandelelwano loqeqesho. Oku kufuneka kuqwalaselwe kumxholo wemfundo ye-anatomy, njengoko iingenelo zokufunda okuxutyiweyo kunye nokudalwa kunye zisekiwe kakuhle [89]. Ukuze kujongwane nomsebenzi wokuthengisa okhulayo, ukuzifundela kuye kwasetyenziswa amaxesha amaninzi ukuvavanya iimodeli [24, 26, 27, 32, 46, 69, 82].
Olunye uphando lugqibe kwelokuba umbala wezinto zeplastiki wawukhanya kakhulu[45], olunye uphando lugqibe kwelokuba imodeli yayibuthathaka kakhulu[71], kwaye ezinye izifundo ezimbini zibonise ukungabikho kokuguquguquka kwe-anatomical kuyilo lweemodeli nganye[25, 45]. Izifundo ezisixhenxe zigqibe kwelokuba iinkcukacha ze-anatomical ze-3DPAM azanelanga [28, 34, 45, 48, 62, 63, 81].
Kwiimodeli ezineenkcukacha ezithe vetshe zeendawo ezinkulu nezintsonkothileyo, ezifana ne-retroperitoneum okanye umqolo wesibeleko, ixesha lokwahlulahlula kunye nelokwenza imodeli lithathwa njengelide kakhulu kwaye ixabiso liphezulu kakhulu (malunga ne-US$2000) [27, 48]. UHojo kunye noogxa bakhe bathi kuphononongo lwabo ukuba kuthathe iiyure ezingama-40 ukwenza imodeli ye-anatomical ye-pelvis [42]. Ixesha elide lokwahlulahlula yayiziiyure ezingama-380 kuphononongo lukaWeatherall kunye noogxa bakhe, apho iimodeli ezininzi zadityaniswa ukwenza imodeli epheleleyo yomoya wabantwana [36]. Kwizifundo ezisithoba, ixesha lokwahlulahlula kunye nokuprinta lathathwa njengeengxaki [36, 42, 57, 58, 74]. Nangona kunjalo, izifundo ezili-12 zigxeke iimpawu zomzimba zeemodeli zabo, ngakumbi ukuhambelana kwazo, [28, 62] ukungabikho kokubonakala, [30] ubuthathaka kunye ne-monochromaticity, [71] ukungabikho kwezicubu ezithambileyo, [66] okanye ukungabikho kweenkcukacha [28, 34]. , 45, 48, 62, 63, 81]. Ezi ngxaki zinokoyiswa ngokwandisa ixesha lokwahlulahlula okanye lokulinganisa. Ukulahlekelwa nokufumana ulwazi olufanelekileyo yayiyingxaki eyayijongene namaqela amathathu [30, 74, 77]. Ngokweengxelo zezigulane, ii-iodined contrast agents azizange zibonelele ngokubonakalayo kwemithambo yegazi ngenxa yemida yedosi [74]. Ukufakwa kwemodeli yesidumbu kubonakala kuyindlela efanelekileyo eshiya umgaqo "wokuba kuncinci kangangoko kunokwenzeka" kunye nemida yedosi ye-contrast agent efakwe.
Ngelishwa, amanqaku amaninzi awakhankanyi ezinye zeempawu eziphambili ze-3DPAM. Ngaphantsi kwesiqingatha samanqaku achaze ngokucacileyo ukuba i-3DPAM yawo yayinombala omdaka na. Ukugubungela ububanzi bokushicilelwa bekungaguquguquki (43% yamanqaku), kwaye yi-34% kuphela ekhankanyileyo ukusetyenziswa kweendaba ezininzi. Ezi parameter zokuprinta zibalulekile kuba zichaphazela iimpawu zokufunda ze-3DPAM. Uninzi lwamanqaku aluboneleli ngolwazi olwaneleyo malunga nobunzima bokufumana i-3DPAM (ixesha loyilo, iziqinisekiso zabasebenzi, iindleko zesoftware, iindleko zokuprinta, njl.njl.). Olu lwazi lubalulekile kwaye kufuneka luqwalaselwe ngaphambi kokuba kuqwalaselwe ukuqala iprojekthi yokuphuhlisa i-3DPAM entsha.
Olu phononongo olucwangcisiweyo lubonisa ukuba ukuyila kunye nokuprinta iimodeli eziqhelekileyo ze-anatomical ze-3D kunokwenzeka ngexabiso eliphantsi, ngakumbi xa kusetyenziswa iiprinta ze-FDM okanye ze-SLA kunye nezixhobo zeplastiki ezingabizi kakhulu zombala omnye. Nangona kunjalo, ezi zakhiwo zisisiseko zinokuphuculwa ngokongeza umbala okanye ukongeza uyilo kwizinto ezahlukeneyo. Iimodeli ezingokoqobo ngakumbi (eziprintiweyo kusetyenziswa izixhobo ezininzi zemibala eyahlukeneyo kunye nobume ukuze ziphinde ngokusondeleyo iimpawu ezithintekayo zemodeli yesalathiso sesidumbu) zifuna ubuchwepheshe bokuprinta be-3D obubizayo kunye namaxesha amade oyilo. Oku kuya kunyusa kakhulu iindleko zizonke. Nokuba yeyiphi na inkqubo yokuprinta ekhethiweyo, ukukhetha indlela efanelekileyo yokufota kubalulekile kwimpumelelo ye-3DPAM. Okukhona isisombululo sendawo siphezulu, kokukhona imodeli iba yeyokwenyani kwaye ingasetyenziselwa uphando oluphambili. Ukusuka kwimbono yokufundisa, i-3DPAM sisixhobo esisebenzayo sokufundisa i-anatomy, njengoko kungqinwa luvavanyo lolwazi olunikezelwa kubafundi kunye nokwaneliseka kwabo. Isiphumo sokufundisa se-3DPAM singcono xa ivelisa iindawo ezintsonkothileyo ze-anatomical kwaye abafundi bayisebenzisa kwasekuqaleni kuqeqesho lwabo lwezonyango.
Iidatha ezivelisweyo kunye/okanye ezihlalutyiweyo kolu phando lwangoku azifumaneki esidlangalaleni ngenxa yemiqobo yolwimi kodwa ziyafumaneka kumbhali ohambelanayo xa kuceliwe ngokufanelekileyo.
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Ukwahlulwa kwe-Ghosh SK Cadaveric njengesixhobo sokufundisa isayensi ye-anatomical kwinkulungwane yama-21: Ukwahlulwa kwe-cadaveric njengesixhobo sokufundisa. Uhlalutyo lwemfundo yesayensi. 2017;10(3):286–99.
Ixesha lokuthumela: Epreli-09-2024